Wednesday, 31 May 2017

Traditional Knowledge

     I.                                  Traditional Knowledge


“IN OUR DECISIONS WE MUST TAKE INTO
                                     ACCOUNT THE IMPACTS ON THE NEXT SEVEN GENERATIONS.”
First Nations Oral Tradition
The estimated 370 million indigenous peoples that live across 70 countries worldwide are the holders of unique cultures, languages and knowledge systems. Indigenous peoples have inhabited their territories with a historical continuity and have developed a unique relationship to their lands, which forms the very basis of their cultures. Most indigenous peoples have been subject to experiences of subjugation, marginalization, dispossession, exclusion or discrimination by the mainstream societies that became dominant through conquest, occupation or settlement. However indigenous peoples have managed to retain distinct social, cultural and political characteristics, in particular, they have maintained a wealth of traditional knowledge. Traditional knowledge is generated and transmitted in a tradition-based context and forms an intrinsic part of a peoples’ self-identity. It has been accumulated over many generations and is constantly adapting to changing environments. Given the diversity of indigenous cultures, a variety of traditional knowledge exists, covering a wide range of fields such as agricultural, medicinal and ecological knowledge.
Nevertheless, some common characteristics of traditional knowledge can be identified. In the past, indigenous peoples’ traditional knowledge has been considered to be freely exploitable. Traditional knowledge has been appropriated without the consent of the knowledge holders and without sharing the benefits arising out of its use. In the worst case, the original holders of traditional knowledge have been excluded from its use by third parties claiming intellectual property rights over traditional knowledge. In the field of biodiversity-related traditional knowledge, this phenomenon has entered the international stage under the key word “biopiracy”. Traditional knowledge is further threatened by the destruction of the natural environment, which in turn endangers indigenous cultures and their traditional knowledge embedded therein; the assimilation of indigenous peoples into mainstream culture and the replacement of traditional knowledge by Western science, the loss of indigenous languages and the lack of interest in the continued use of traditional knowledge. Growing appreciation of the value of traditional knowledge, the need to address the causes of its loss and progressing recognition of indigenous rights has resulted in international discussions on the protection of traditional knowledge. Since several years, a number of international bodies have been discussing the protection of traditional knowledge in the framework of their specific mandates and interests, including environmental law, intellectual property law, human rights law and trade law. However, due to the complexity of the issue and the conflicting interests of the stakeholders involved, no consensus for an effective legally binding instrument has been reached so far.
   II.        MEANING OF TRADITIONAL KNOWLEDGE
Traditional knowledge has been discussed in several international fora, no consensus on an internationally acceptable definition has been reached so far, in particular there is no legal definition of the term in the CBD[1].
The Secretariat of the CBD refers to traditional knowledge as;
“the knowledge, innovations and practices of indigenous and local communities around the world. Developed from experience gained over the centuries and adapted to the local culture and environment, traditional knowledge is transmitted orally from generation to generation. It tends to be collectively owned and takes the form of stories, songs, folklore, proverbs, cultural values, beliefs, rituals, community laws, local language, and agricultural practices, including the development of plant species and animal breeds. Some times it is referred to as an oral traditional for it is practiced, sung, danced, painted, carved, chanted and performed down through millennia. Traditional knowledge is mainly of a practical nature, particularly in such fields as agriculture, fisheries, health, horticulture, forestry and environmental management in general”.
WIPO[2] acknowledges the diversity of traditional knowledge, stakeholders and policy interests and therefore uses a ‘working concept’ instead of an exhaustive definition:
 “ ‘traditional knowledge’ … refers to tradition-based literary, artistic or scientific works; performances; inventions; scientific discoveries; designs; marks, names and symbols; undisclosed information; and all other tradition-based innovations and creations resulting from intellectual activity in the industrial, scientific, literary or artistic fields.”
The knowledge is either hold by individuals, by groups or by the people as a whole, while the ownership of the knowledge however is usually within the collective and regulated by customary law. Traditional knowledge is transmitted mostly orally from generation to generation and is “not static; it evolves and generates new information as a result of improvements or adaptation to changing circumstances”. These formal characteristics focus on the context, method and qualities of traditional knowledge instead of its actual content, which covers “fields such as medicine, food and agriculture, environmental management and biodiversity conservation, nutrition and cultural objects”.

III.            PROTECTION OF TRADITIONAL KNOWLEDGE AT INTERNATIONAL  LEVEL:
Traditional knowledge of indigenous peoples is a multifaceted issue that touches upon a number of different areas of law, including environmental law, intellectual property rights and trade law and indigenous rights. Accordingly, traditional knowledge is being discussed in numerous international fora that each have different mandates and interests and therefore concentrate on different aspects of traditional knowledge.

The Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) establishes the right to the protection of moral interests and materials deriving from any scientific, literary or artistic production. The UDHR is not a binding document, but it is a foundational document for the United Nations and for the two 1966 Covenants, the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights and the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights.
Although the UDHR does not address intellectual property rights, Article 27[3] of the UDHR recognizes the "moral and material interests" of authors and inventors and the right of the public “to enjoy the arts and to share in scientific advancement and its benefits.” This article expresses the challenge of balancing private intellectual property rights and a vibrant public domain.

The International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (ICESCR) establishes a right to the protection of the moral and material interests resulting from any scientific, literary or artistic production. ICESCR has 160 parties, 69 of which are signatories. In conjunction with the 1948 Universal Declaration of Human Rights, and recognizing the binding nature of the treaty upon its signatories, the ICESCR can be interpreted as guaranteeing intellectual property rights as a human right. In 2005, the Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (CESCR) commented on Article 15[4] of the ICESCR, expanding it to protect indigenous groups' expressions of cultural heritage. CESCR calls upon signatories to adopt protective measures that "recognize, register and protect the individual or collective authorship of indigenous peoples under national intellectual property rights regimes and should prevent the unauthorized use of scientific, literary and artistic productions of indigenous peoples by third parties."

The International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR) recognizes the self determination of minority groups and their right to control their culture. The ICCPR has 165 parties, 72 of which are signatories. Although the ICCPR is silent on most cultural and intellectual property rights issues, considered in conjunction with the 1966 International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights and the 1948 Universal Declaration of Human Rights, the ICCPR can be viewed as establishing intellectual property rights as human rights.
Article 1
All peoples have the right of self-determination. By virtue of that right they freely determine their political status and freely pursue their economic, social and cultural development.
Article 27
In those States in which ethnic, religious or linguistic minorities exist, persons belonging to such minorities shall not be denied the right, in community with the other members of their group, to enjoy their own culture, to profess and practise their own religion, or to use their own language.
4.     World Intellectual Property Organization, 1967
WIPO is a specialized agency of the United Nations established by the WIPO Convention in 1967 and mandated to promote the protection of intellectual property throughout the world through cooperation among states and in collaboration with other international organizations. WIPO currently has 184 member states and administers international treaties. It provides a forum for international policy debate and development of legal mechanisms and practical tools concerning the protection of traditional knowledge and traditional cultural expressions against misappropriation and misuse, and the intellectual property aspects of access to and benefit-sharing in genetic resources.
WIPO’s work on traditional cultural expressions began in 1978 in cooperation with the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization UNESCO, which 1982 resulted in the Model Provisions for National Laws on the Protection of Expressions of Folklore against Illicit Exploitation and Other Prejudicial Actions.
In 1998 and 1999, WIPO consulted a wide range of stakeholders in twenty-eight countries, including indigenous peoples, non-governmental organizations, governmental representatives, academics and the private sector, in order to identify the intellectual property needs and expectations of the holders of traditional knowledge and cultural expressions. Within the several WIPO bodies addressing traditional knowledge, the Intergovernmental Committee on Intellectual Property and Genetic Resources,
Traditional Knowledge and Folklore (IGC) is of primary importance and shall be illustrated below.
Intergovernmental Committee on Intellectual Property and Genetic Resources, Traditional Knowledge and Folklore
Following the WIPO fact-finding missions in 1998-1999, WIPO recognized that traditional knowledge cuts across the conventional branches of intellectual property law and would therefore not fit into the existing WIPO bodies. Thus, the WIPO General Assembly in 2000 established the IGC in order to discuss intellectual property issues that arise in the context of access to genetic resources and benefit sharing; the protection of traditional knowledge, innovations and creativity, whether or not associated with those resources; and the protection of expressions of folklore, including handicrafts.
The work of the IGC has resulted in the development of non-formal Draft Provisions for the protection of traditional knowledge against misappropriation and misuse and suggesting possible international objectives and principles.
The Draft Provisions have the following objectives:
·        to recognize value; to promote respect;
·        to meet the actual needs of communities;
·        to prevent the misappropriation of traditional cultural expressions/expressions of folklore;
·        to empower communities;
·         to support customary practices and community cooperation; to contribute to safeguarding traditional cultures;
·        to encourage community innovation and creativity;
·        to promote intellectual and artistic freedom, research and cultural exchange on equitable terms; to contribute to cultural diversity;
·        to promote community development and legitimate trading activities;
·        to preclude unauthorized IP rights and to enhance certainty, transparency and mutual confidence.

Although the Berne Convention does not mention traditional knowledge, Article 15(4)[5] can be interpreted to leave to the discretion of each member country how (if at all) to protect TCEs.
The International Labor Organization, a special agency under the auspices of the UN, was the first international organization to attempt to define indigenous populations and to declare the rights of such populations. ILO Convention No. 169 replaced ILO Indigenous and Tribal Populations Convention No. 107 (1957) that had been ratified by six African States., the ILO and the African Commission on Human and Peoples’ Rights view this instrument as an inspiration and a reflection of a trend towards the protection of indigenous rights globally and in Africa.
The 169 Convention focuses on indigenous peoples’ rights to control their own institution, economic development, customs and belief systems. It applies to "tribal peoples in independent countries whose social, cultural and economic conditions distinguish them from other sections of the national community, and whose status is regulated wholly or partially by their own customs or traditions or by special laws or regulations[6]" and to "peoples in independent countries who are regarded as indigenous on account of their descent from the populations which inhabited the country, or a geographical region to which the country belongs, at the time of conquest or colonisation or the establishment of present state boundaries and who, irrespective of their legal status, retain some or all of their own social, economic, cultural and political institutions."
The Convention does not mention intellectual property rights, but seeks to protect indignous culture and recognizes the collective ownership that characterizes many indigenous populations.[7]
Article 5
1.     the social, cultural, religious and spiritual values and practices of these peoples shall be recognised and protected, and due account shall be taken of the nature of the problems which face them both as groups and as individuals;
2.     the integrity of the values, practices and institutions of these peoples shall be respected;
3.     policies aimed at mitigating the difficulties experienced by these peoples in facing new conditions of life and work shall be adopted, with the participation and co-operation of the peoples affected.
7.     Convention on Biological Diversity,1993
The CBD was negotiated in the framework of the United Nations Environment Programme and opened for signature at the Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro in June 1992. It entered into force in December 1993 and currently has 191 parties. Inspired by the world’s community growing commitment to sustainable development, the convention seeks to tackle the loss of biodiversity “due to human activities that degrade or encroach on habitats, increase pollution, and contribute to climate change” and aims to achieve an ;
1.     equitable balancing of the interests of developed and developing diversity,
2.     the sustainable use of its components and
3.     the fair and equitable sharing of the benefits arising out of the utilization of genetic resources.
Unlike earlier multilateral environmental treaties that dealt with particular aspects of biodiversity, the convention is more comprehensive in its approach, covering all levels of biodiversity on a global scale as well as the sustainable use of its components and benefit-sharing and is therefore referred to as a framework convention. The convention’s substantive provisions cover amongst others general measures for conservation and sustainable use, in-situ and ex-situ conservation, sustainable use of components of biological diversity, incentive measures, research and training, public education and awareness, impact assessment and minimizing adverse impacts, access to genetic resources, access to and transfer of technology, exchange of information, technical and scientific cooperation, handling of biotechnology and distribution of its benefits and financial resources and mechanisms. Given the number of issues covered by the convention, its provisions are mostly of a general nature and expressed as overall goals that obligate parties to take measures on the national level. Furthermore, most substantive articles are weakened by additional phrases such as “as far as possible and as appropriate”.
The convention establishes an institutional framework for the further development of the convention and the elaboration or clarification of general provisions and the monitoring of its implementation. The three institutional bodies established by the convention itself are the Conference of the Parties (COP), the Subsidiary Body on Scientific, Technical and Technological Advice and the Secretariat. Further, the convention provides for a financial mechanism and the establishment of a clearinghouse mechanism for scientific and technical cooperation. The convention further enables parties to establish additional subsidiary bodies with a limited mandate and limited period of time. The current additional subsidiary bodies are the Working Group on Access and Benefit-Sharing (WG ABS), the Working Group on Article 8(j) (WG 8J), the Working Group on Protected Areas and the Working Group on the Review of Implementation of the Convention.
With regard to traditional knowledge and access and benefit-sharing, the COP and the two advisory bodies WG 8J[8] and WG ABS[9] are relevant and shall be illustrated below.
a.     Conference of the Parties
The COP is the governing body of the convention that brings together the parties to the convention every two years, or as needed. Its function is to review the implementation of the convention and its development through the decisions it takes. Reflecting the breadth of issues that the convention covers, the agenda of the meetings of the COP is very wide-ranging, composed of thematic and cross-cutting issues. The COP has dealt with both access and benefit-sharing and traditional knowledge in several of its decisions.
b.     Working Group on Article 8(j) and related provisions
The WG 8J was established in 1998 by the forth COP meeting in order to provide the COP with advice relating to the implementation of article 8(j). It gives special attention to the participation of indigenous peoples. The Working Group is composed of parties and observers, including, in particular, representatives of indigenous peoples.
The program of work, adopted by the fifth COP meeting in 2000, further encourages in its general principles the “full and effective participation of indigenous and local communities in all stages of the identification and implementation of the elements of the programme of work”. The participation of indigenous peoples is facilitated through a voluntary funding mechanism. One of the major outputs of the Working Group are the legally non-binding Guidelines for the conduct of cultural, environmental and social impact assessments regarding developments proposed to take place or which are likely to impact on sacred sites and on lands and waters traditionally occupied or used by indigenous and local communities. The Working Group has further reported on the status and trends of traditional knowledge and is currently elaborating elements of sui generis systems for the protection of traditional knowledge, innovations and practices and elements of a code of ethical conduct to ensure respect for the cultural and intellectual heritage of indigenous and local communities, which could contribute to the negotiations of the international regime on access and benefit-sharing.
4.     Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (1994)
The 1994 TRIPS Agreement created a set of minimum intellectual property standards for all members of the World Trade Organization. Although the Agreement requires developing countries to increase many forms of intellectual property protection, it does not mention folklore or TCEs.
After the passage of TRIPS, the UN Human Rights Commission studied its implications for human rights. In 2000, the Commission, relying on that study, adopted Resolution 2000/7 on Intellectual Property and Human Rights. The Resolution notes that “actual or potential conflicts exist between the implementation of the TRIPS Agreement and the realization of economic, social and cultural rights in relation to . . . the reduction of communities’ (especially indigenous communities’) control over their own . . . natural resources and cultural values.”
It declares that “the implementation of the TRIPS Agreement does not adequately reflect the fundamental nature and indivisibility of all human rights, including . . . the right to self-determination. There are apparent conflicts between the intellectual property rights regime embodied in the TRIPS Agreement, on the one hand, and international human rights law, on the other.”
 The Sub-Commission urged national governments, intergovernmental organizations, and civil society groups to give human rights primacy over the economic policies and agreements.
In 2001, UNESCO began drafting a definition of intangible cultural heritage and formulating provisions for its protection. In 2003, the resulting Convention was adopted and in 2006 it entered into force, 121 countries have ratified the Convention. 
Article 1 lists the purposes of the Convention as "to safeguard the intangible cultural heritage; to ensure respect for the intangible cultural heritage of the communities, groups and individuals concerned; to raise awareness at the local, national and international levels of the importance of the intangible cultural heritage, and of ensuring mutual appreciation thereof; to provide for international cooperation and assistance." Although the Convention does not directly discuss intellectual property rights,
Article 3 notes that nothing in the Convention affects "the rights and obligations of States Parties deriving from any international instrument relating to intellectual property rights ... to which they are parties."
Article 11 provides Role of States Parties to:
a.      take the necessary measures to ensure the safeguarding of the intangible cultural heritage present in its territory;
b.     among the safeguarding measures referred to in Article 2, paragraph 3, identify and define the various elements of the intangible cultural heritage present in its territory, with the participation of communities, groups and relevant nongovernmental organizations.

The Convention on the Protection and Promotion of the Diversity of Cultural Expressions builds off the earlier Universal Declaration on Cultural Diversity of (2001). Canada, France, Germany, Greece, Mexico, Monaco, Morocco, and Senegal and Francophone member states of UNESCO strongly supported the Convention. The United States opposed it. 104 countries have acceded to or ratified the Convention.
The Convention recognizes "the importance of traditional knowledge as a source of intangible and material wealth, and in particular the knowledge systems of indigenous peoples, and its positive contribution to sustainable development, as well as the need for its adequate protection and promotion." It seeks to “to reaffirm the sovereign rights of States to maintain, adopt and implement policies and measures that they deem appropriate for the protection and promotion of the diversity of cultural expressions on their territory”[10].
 The Convention also seeks to mitigate the dilution of culture that follows from the movement of cultural goods and services across national borders.
The Convention mentions intellectual property rights once, by recognizing "the importance of intellectual property rights in sustaining those involved in cultural creativity."
The Convention is ambiguous, however, on how much protection to grant to TCEs. Article 6 lists the types of measures member states may adopt to protect and promote cultural diversity.
Subsection 2(g) allows “measures aimed at nurturing and supporting artists and others involved in the creation of cultural expressions”
Subsection 2(e) allows for measure that “promote the free exchange and circulation of . . . cultural expressions and cultural activities, goods and services.” Strong support for indigenous groups as creators of TCEs is not required by Article 7, as members states need only “endeavour to recognize the important contribution of artists, others involved in the creative process, cultural communities, and organizations that support their work, and their central role in nurturing the diversity of cultural expressions.”

The UN has been investigating the protection of minorities and indigenous populations since 1969. On 30 January 2007, the Assembly of the Union adopted a decision known as the UN Declaration on the rights of indigenous peoples. 143 countries voted in favor of the Declaration. The Declaration is the most comprehensive statement of the rights of indigenous peoples ever developed, giving prominence to collective rights to a degree unprecedented in international human rights law. The adoption of this instrument is the clearest indication yet that the international community is committing itself to the protection of the individual and collective rights of indigenous peoples. The key provisions follow.
        I.            Indigenous peoples and individuals have the right not to be subjected to forced assimilation or destruction of their culture. States shall provide effective mechanisms for prevention of, and redress for any action against such right[11].
      II.            Indigenous peoples have the right to practise and revitalize their cultural traditions and customs. This includes the right to maintain, protect and develop the past, present and future manifestations of their cultures, such as archaeological and historical sites, artefacts, designs, ceremonies, technologies and visual and performing arts and literature and States shall provide redress through effective mechanisms, which may include restitution, developed in conjunction with indigenous peoples[12]
   III.            Indigenous peoples have the right to manifest, practise, develop and teach their spiritual and religious traditions, customs and ceremonies; the right to maintain, protect, and have access in privacy to their religious and cultural sites; the right to the use and control of their ceremonial objects; and the right to the repatriation of their human remains.[13]
    IV.            Indigenous peoples have the right to maintain and strengthen their distinctive spiritual relationship with their traditionally owned or otherwise occupied and used lands, territories, waters and coastal seas and other resources and to uphold their responsibilities to future generations in this regard.[14]
      V.            States shall establish and implement, in conjunction with indigenous peoples concerned, a fair, independent, impartial, open and transparent process, giving due recognition to indigenous peoples' laws, traditions, customs and land tenure systems, to recognize and adjudicate the rights of indigenous peoples pertaining to their lands, territories and resources, including those which were traditionally owned or otherwise occupied or used. Indigenous peoples shall have the right to participate in this process[15].
    VI.            Indigenous peoples have the right to maintain, control, protect and develop their cultural heritage, traditional knowledge and traditional cultural expressions, as well as the manifestations of their sciences, technologies and cultures, including human and genetic resources, seeds, medicines, knowledge of the properties of fauna and flora, oral traditions, literatures, designs, sports and traditional games and visual and performing arts. They also have the right to maintain, control, protect and develop their intellectual property over such cultural heritage, traditional knowledge, and traditional cultural expressions.[16]
Etc.


IV.            RATIONALE FOR THE PROTECTION OF TRADITIONAL KNOWLEDGE:

Protection systems are developed as an instrument for achieving certain objectives. The underlying reasons of policy objectives for the protection of traditional knowledge shall be discussed in line with the three broad categories preservation, protection and promotion.

a)     Intrinsic value of traditional knowledge: Traditional knowledge should be preserved “because of its intrinsic value to its owners, to the world, and future generations”. Traditional knowledge forms an integral part of an indigenous people’s identity163,164 and therefore is of cultural and spiritual value.

b)     Economic value of traditional knowledge: Traditional knowledge is not only valuable for the indigenous peoples holding it, but also benefits national economies in monetary terms and has important input on markets such as pharmaceuticals, cosmetics, agriculture, food additives, industrial enzymes, biopesticides, and personal care.

c)     Conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity: In addition to traditional knowledge relating to specific components of biodiversity, indigenous peoples’ knowledge of ecosystem functions is relevant for the conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity.

d)    Protection against misappropriation: A major reason for the protection of traditional knowledge is the issue of its misappropriation, also referred to as biopiracy. This term has not been clearly defined yet and has a heavy political aspect. Usually, biopiracy means the ;
·        unauthorized appropriation of traditional knowledge or biological resources,
·        appropriation of the same without equitably sharing the benefits arising from its use or
·        the illegitimate granting of patents over traditional knowledge.

e)     Promotion of use: As discussed above, traditional knowledge is not only of crucial value to an indigenous peoples identity and integrity, but also benefits human kind as such. Traditional knowledge should therefore be promoted “through its widest possible dissemination and use for the benefit of human kind”.





[1] Convention on Biological Diversity          
[2] World Intellectual Property Organization, 1967
[3] Article 27
a)       Everyone has the right to freely participate in the cultural life of the community, to enjoy the arts and to share in scientific advancement and its benefits.
b)       Everyone has the right to the protection of the moral and material interests resulting from any scientific, literary or artistic production of which he is the author

[4] Article 15
a)       The States Parties to the present Covenant recognize the right of everyone:
1.       To take part in cultural life;
2.       To enjoy the benefits of scientific progress and its applications;
3.       To benefit from the protection of the moral and material interests resulting from any scientific, literary or artistic production of which he is the author.
b)       The steps to be taken by the States Parties to the present Covenant to achieve the full realization of this right shall include those necessary for the conservation, the development and the diffusion of science and culture.
c)       The States Parties to the present Covenant undertake to respect the freedom indispensable for scientific research and creative activity.

[5] In the case of unpublished works where the identity of the author is unknown, but where there is every ground to presume that he is a national of a country of the Union, it shall be a matter for legislation in that country to designate the competent authority which shall represent the author and shall be entitled to protect and enforce his rights in the countries of the Union.

[6] Article4(1): Special measures shall be adopted as appropriate for safeguarding the persons, institutions, property, labour, cultures and environment of the peoples concerned.
[7] Article 1
[8] Working group on Article 8(j)
[9] Working group on access and benefit sharing
[10] Article 1(h)
[11] Article 8
[12] Article11
[13] Article 12
[14] Article 25
[15] Article27
[16] Article 31

Traditional Knowledge

      I.                                   Traditional Knowle dge “I N OUR D ECISIONS WE MUST TAKE INTO                         ...